• Urban form and city-size optimization arise from balancing centralization economies against congestion and land-use costs, across monocentric and multicentre layouts; studies connect density, rent gradients, and infrastructure to regional growth policy [3] [15] [19] [9] [18].

• Gravity-law frameworks model spatial interaction by distance and size, with critiques and extensions addressing entry barriers and policy implications in urban settings [6] [7] [10].

• Econometric and dynamic models link residential location, suburban migration, and metropolitan income to urban structure, using regressions, disequilibrium dynamics, and multicentre formulations [12] [16] [18] [17] [9].

• Growth-centre networks and regional linkage analyses explore how concentration and cross-centre connections shape regional accessibility and infrastructure planning [1] [11] [9] [8].

• Equilibrium-based models derive city-size dependent land rents and density functions, linking single-centre theory to multicentre urban economies via population-land-use relations [5] [9].